Written by Emma Bock - Editor: Kata Krnács
Iceland attracts millions of visitors to experience its unique landscapes of fjords, mountain ranges, waterfalls, and volcanic fields. There's an idea that Iceland is a country where you can experience untouched nature and immerse yourself in its natural surroundings. However, based on evidence of the country's history, some argue that Iceland is one of the most ecologically damaged countries in the world. With the first settlement of inhabitants dating back to the 9th century, the land has been severely impacted, resulting in the felling of approximately 90% of the country's trees and the erosion of 40% of its original land mass. One of Iceland's notable landscapes is the vast purple fields of lupine flowers that stretch across much of the country's bare terrain. To many people's surprise, these beautiful purple flowers are considered invasive. An invasive species is a non-native species not indigenous to a particular area. In the case of lupine, they originate from western North America, stretching from Alaska, USA, down to British Columbia, Canada. The flower was introduced to the Icelandic landscape in the 1940s, when the country took action to address the environmental damage it had caused over centuries. The Lupine flower was chosen, in particular, due to its ability to re-establish nutrients into the soil. Over the next few decades, the spread of lupines across the country demonstrated the species' resilience, which allowed it to outcompete native vegetation. This led to a contentious debate on whether the lupine flower should be planted in Iceland or not.
For centuries, Iceland has borne the brunt of anthropogenic behaviour, shaping its unique landscape into what it is today. The barren land, nestled between active volcanoes and a few wetlands, has long been at the mercy of erosion. The absence of trees has left the soil depleted of nutrients, making it nearly impossible for reforestation to occur. This, coupled with the soil's lack of structural integrity, has resulted in widespread erosion. Soil is an important component in the ongoing battle with erosion, and Iceland’s soil landscape can be broadly categorised into three main types: Andosols, Vitrisols, and Histosols.
Due to the fragile soil structure in Iceland and deforestation that began in the 9th century, the country established two government teams to halt the ongoing erosion. The Icelandic Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service of Iceland were established at the beginning of the 20th century, and it was these two organisations that introduced the lupine to Iceland in 1945. The Nootka Lupine was seen as the perfect tool for soil reconstruction in the country. Lupines can grow in sandy, low-nutrient soils as well as in bushes as tall as 0.9 meters. The plants are self-fertilising, meaning they require no pollinators to produce seeds, and each plant can produce 2000 seeds in a season. The lupine's ability to establish itself in such poor conditions while still reproducing a healthy succession made it a no-brainer for foresters, ecologists, and soil conservationists. Thanks to the lupines’ efforts, foresters successfully replanted birch stands along the edges of the fields, and the strengthened soil structure prevented sandstorms and further erosion where the lupines were planted. The resilience of the lupine, its ability to thrive in such harsh conditions, is truly impressive. However, now that the lupine population has established itself, conservationists have noticed that the strength of the plant is outgrowing and overtaking the delicate native plants, such as various types of lichens and mosses. Since this discovery, the lupine is considered an invasive species, and many Icelanders find themselves in a battle to be for or against this purple flower.
The future of Iceland’s landscape depends on land management. The controversy of the lupine flower is complex, as it remains an invasive species posing a threat to the native vegetation; however, at the same time, if it weren’t for the resiliency of the lupine flower, how much more of Iceland would have been lost through erosion? This debate is not just about a plant; it's about the very essence of conservation and the choices in managing our natural resources. The lupine controversy also raises a pertinent question for nature managers: whether the idea of an invasive plant should outweigh the ecological benefits it may provide. The term invasive automatically implies a negative connotation, but perhaps it's time to reconsider our perspective and look at the bigger picture.
Moving forward, Iceland has halted the planting of lupine, but it has not written the lupine out of the story entirely. In a climate as harsh as the one found in Iceland, there aren’t many plants that can do the work that the lupine has proven it can achieve. This controversy over whether using an invasive species for nature management also brings forward the question of what kind of landscape we want to restore. For Iceland, the landscape hasn’t been in its ‘natural form’ since before the 9th century. That means the natural landscape has never been present during the Anthropocene—the epoch that scientists have determined the world has entered based on human impact on Earth. How do we know what the Icelandic landscape would look like in the Anthropocene? We have already seen the impacts of climate change and global warming on Iceland, with glacier melting and sea level rise. Therefore, it could be fair to say that the landscape that existed before the 9th century would not be the same if it had survived to this day. If Iceland continues to utilise the lupine as a tool for managing the landscape, it will require thoughtful implementation that continually improves growing conditions while avoiding outcompeting native plants. The decisions made in this delicate balance are crucial for the future of Iceland's landscape.
References:
Brown, G., Foote, T., Grandhi, N., & Michels, W. (2022). Assessing Lupine as an Environmental Conservation Tool in Iceland. Worcester ; Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Kuprian, A. (2016). Negotiating contested landscapes: The Lupin controversy in Iceland Science Direct. https://www.ssns.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Kuprian_2018_Vol_49_pp_25_37.pdf
Hautala, R., & Kulmala, J. (2023, December 20). How erosion and other natural forces have changed the Icelandic landscape – is Nootka lupine fixing any of these problems? Helsinki. http://hdl.handle.net/10138/569551